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From: Bryan Brooks <bab74@columbia.edu>
To : <cpc@emoglen.law.columbia.edu>
Date: Mon, 8 May 2006 20:28:55 -0400
The Constitutional Right of Privacy in the Internet Society: Curtailing Government and Private Intrusion Through Regulation of Data Brokers
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"Political, social, and economic changes entail the recognition of new
rights, and the common law, in its eternal youth, grows to meet the new
demands of society."[1]
Technological advancements have always impacted how we live.
It's been true of every major "revolution" in our history -- from the
industrial to the digital, and will continue to be so. As Americans, we
embrace such progress. Indeed, spurring such progress in the sciences
and useful arts is a value embedded in our Constitution. Other values,
of course, are also embedded in our Constitution, values that in large
measure define who we are -- especially with respect to our relationship
with our agents of government (e.g., the Bill of Rights). Some of these
explicit culture-defining values include the freedom of speech, the
right of due process of law and equal protection of the laws. Still
other values, just as important to the collective American identity, yet
unenumerated in the landmark document, have long been recognized.
Perhaps the most important of these rights, often referred to as
penumbral rights, is the definition-eluding right of privacy. From one
perspective, it is the coexistence of the pursuit of technological
progress as a cultural value (which has led to remarkable capabilities
in information and communication technologies and the attendant economic
benefits and pitfalls) and the desire of the citizens to live autonomous
lives free from unwarranted governmental intrusion (the realm of the
penumbral right of privacy) that has led to much tension in outlining
the contours of citizens' privacy rights in the Internet Society. In
this brief essay I attempt to synthesize the U.S. Supreme Court's
jurisprudence in the privacy arena and how such doctrine should evolve
in the Information Age, given the reality of our surveillance
society.[2]
The Right of Privacy: From Griswold to Lawrence
The right of privacy, as a constitutional right, was
expounded in Griswold v. Connecticut.[3] Griswold involved a challenge
to a Connecticut statute barring physicians from giving instruction or
means of contraception to married persons. The real question, as the
Court articulated it, was whether states could abridge individual
citizens' rights deemed fundamental, although not specified in the
federal constitution, but understood to be derived from the explicit
guarantees in the constitution. The Court found the statute
unconstitutional. Justice Douglas, writing for the majority, noted that
"specific guarantees in the Bill or Rights have penumbras, formed by
emanations from those guarantees that help give them life and substance
... [and those] various guarantees create zones of privacy."[4] In a
concurring opinion, Justice Goldberg, quoting from Powell v. Alabama[5],
reiterated that "[t]he inquiry is whether a right involved is of such a
character that it cannot be denied without violating those fundamental
principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all our civil
and political institutions ..." (internal quotations omitted).[6]
Since Griswold the Court has continued to recognize the
right of privacy in what might be deemed "decisional" or "physical
space-specific" contexts (e.g., Roe v. Wade[7], Whalen v. Roe[8],
Planned Parenthood v. Casey[9], Chandler v. Miller[10], and Lawrence v.
Texas[11], which overruled the only case in the Griswold progeny to
significantly deviate from the "right of privacy doctrine," Bowers v.
Hardwick[12]). What it has not done, however, is provide a workable
framework for protecting citizens from what has been referred to as
"intangible invasions" in the Internet Society - that is, freedom
extending beyond spatial bounds.[13]
So, Does Freedom Extend Beyond Spatial Bounds: What to Make of
Intangible Invasions Where Private Affairs Are Exploited by Others?
It is worth noting, as Justice Black did in his dissent in
Griswold, that the notion of a "right to privacy" was first developed in
a law review article co-authored by Louis D. Brandeis as a means of
providing a basis of "tort relief to persons whose private affairs were
exploited by others."[14] The powerful idea expressed in this
inconspicuous footnote embodies the progressive value that must be
embraced if we are to curtail the intrusions made possible by the merger
of data aggregators, analysts and government.[15]
Recall Justice Stewart's memorable assertion in Katz v.
United States, "For the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places.
What a person knowingly exposes to the public, even in his own home or
office, is not a subject of Fourth Amendment protection ... But what he
seeks to preserve as private, even in an area accessible to the public,
may be constitutionally protected" (emphasis added).[16] In Katz,
federal agents attached an eavesdropping device to the outside of a
public phone booth used by Katz. Based on recordings of his end of the
conversations, Katz was convicted under an eight-count indictment for
the illegal transmission of wagering information from Los Angeles to
Boston and Miami. The Court ruled that Katz was entitled to Fourth
Amendment protection for his conversations and that a physical intrusion
into the area he occupied was unnecessary to bring the Amendment into
play.
A thorough reading of the Griswold line of cases, and Katz,
reveals that it is the intent of the person subject to a privacy
intrusion that matters most - not the interests of the government or
private data brokers. The question then becomes whether Americans are
"knowingly" exposing profiling data to the public (including government)
when engaging in arms length transactions with private sector entities,
or "seeking to preserve" such information as private and only disclosed
to the party in privity. When viewed through the lens of privacy,
"knowingly" has to be construed to mean actual, not merely constructive,
notice. And in the Internet society, actual notice must go beyond
inconspicuous and largely unread privacy policies written in legal
jargon. Moreover, "seeking to preserve" should be the rebuttable
presumption afforded citizens, undermined only by acquiescence to a
clear and conspicuous policy to the contrary.
In the words of Professor Tribe, "[s]cience and technology
open options ... [t]hey do not alter what is right or what is wrong ...
The Constitution's norms, at their deepest level, must be invariant
under merely technological transformations."[17]
[In a follow up to this essay I propose statutory language, with
interpretational guidance, designed to effect the changes deemed
necessary to restore privacy and slow down Big Brother and his private
sector accomplices.]
[1] Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 Harv.
L. Rev. 193 (1890), (quoting Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 2312),
available at
http://www.lawrence.edu/fast/BOARDMAW/Privacy_brand_warr2.html. While
an appreciation of the prevailing jurisprudential stance that a right
sounding in tort carries significantly less weight than a right afforded
constitutional protection is worth mentioning, such a constructed
distinction is of little moment to the progressive, legal-realist
oriented commentator who values the substance of liberty over the
formalism of procedure. That would be me.
2 For evidence of our surveillance society, see generally Robert
O'Harrow, Jr., No Place to Hide, Free Press (2005).
3 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
4 381 U.S. 479, 484 (1965).
5 287 U.S. 45, 67 (1932).
6 381 U.S. 479, 493 (1965).
7 410 U.S. 113 (1973) (protecting woman's right to terminate pregnancy).
8 429 U.S. 589 (1977) (upholding statute requiring identification of
persons obtaining certain drugs by prescription, where "public
disclosure of the identity of patients is expressly prohibited ...")
(emphasis added).
9 505 U.S. 833 (1992) ()
10 520 U.S. 305 (1997) (holding unconstitutional a Georgia statute
requiring candidates for certain public offices to take drug test).
11 539 U.S. 558 (2003) (overruled Bowers v. Hardwick, holding that right
to liberty gives homosexuals the full right to engage in their conduct
without intervention from the government.)
12 478 U.S. 186 (holding Constitution provided no fundamental right to
engage in homosexual sodomy).
13 Laurence H. Tribe, The Constitution in Cyberspace: Law and Liberty
Beyond the Electronic Frontier, available at
http://www.epic.org/free_speech/tribe.html.
14 381 U.S. 479, 510 (1965); Warren & Brandeis, supra note 1.
15 While the Privacy Act of 1974 precludes the government from
maintaining data on citizens not targeted for investigations, there are
no comparable restrictions prohibiting government from contracting with
private sector entities not subject to the restriction.
16 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967).
17 Tribe, supra note 8.
Bryan A. Brooks
Columbia Law School
Class of 2006
"True compassion is more than flinging a coin to a beggar. It comes to
see that an edifice which produces beggars needs restructuring."
- MLK, Jr.
"Where purpose is not known, abuse is inevitable."
- Myles Munroe
_____
[1] Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, The Right to Privacy, 4 Harv.
L. Rev. 193 (1890), (quoting Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 2312),
available at
http://www.lawrence.edu/fast/BOARDMAW/Privacy_brand_warr2.html. While
an appreciation of the prevailing jurisprudential stance that a right
sounding in tort carries significantly less weight than a right afforded
constitutional protection is worth mentioning, such a constructed
distinction is of little moment to the progressive, legal-realist
oriented commentator who values the substance of liberty over the
formalism of procedure. That would be me.
[2] For evidence of our surveillance society, see generally Robert
O'Harrow, Jr., No Place to Hide, Free Press (2005).
[3] 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
[4] 381 U.S. 479, 484 (1965).
[5] 287 U.S. 45, 67 (1932).
[6] 381 U.S. 479, 493 (1965).
[7] 410 U.S. 113 (1973) (protecting woman's right to terminate
pregnancy).
[8] 429 U.S. 589 (1977) (upholding statute requiring identification of
persons obtaining certain drugs by prescription, where "public
disclosure of the identity of patients is expressly prohibited ...")
(emphasis added).
[9] 505 U.S. 833 (1992) ()
[10] 520 U.S. 305 (1997) (holding unconstitutional a Georgia statute
requiring candidates for certain public offices to take drug test).
[11] 539 U.S. 558 (2003) (overruled Bowers v. Hardwick, holding that
right to liberty gives homosexuals the full right to engage in their
conduct without intervention from the government.)
[12] 478 U.S. 186 (holding Constitution provided no fundamental right to
engage in homosexual sodomy).
[13] Laurence H. Tribe, The Constitution in Cyberspace: Law and Liberty
Beyond the Electronic Frontier, available at
http://www.epic.org/free_speech/tribe.html.
[14] 381 U.S. 479, 510 (1965); Warren & Brandeis, supra note 1.
[15] While the Privacy Act of 1974 precludes the government from
maintaining data on citizens not targeted for investigations, there are
no comparable restrictions prohibiting government from contracting with
private sector entities not subject to the restriction.
[16] 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967).
[17] Tribe, supra note 8.
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<div class=3DSection1>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'>“Political, social, and economic changes entail the recogniti=
on
of new rights, and the common law, in its eternal youth, grows to meet the =
new
demands of society.”<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn1' href=3D"#_ftn1"
name=3D"_ftnref1" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[1]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span><o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>Technological
advancements have always impacted how we live.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:y=
es'>
</span>It’s been true of every major “revolution” in our
history -- from the industrial to the digital, and will continue to be so.<=
span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>As Americans, we embrace such prog=
ress.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Indeed, spurring such progress in =
the sciences
and useful arts is a value embedded in our Constitution.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Other values, of course, are also =
embedded in
our Constitution, values that in large measure define who we are -- especia=
lly
with respect to our relationship with our agents of government (<i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>e.g.</span></i>, the Bill of Rights).<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:ye=
s'>
</span>Some of these explicit culture-defining values include the freedom of
speech, the right of due process of law and equal protection of the laws.<s=
pan
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Still other values, just as import=
ant to the
collective American identity, yet unenumerated in the landmark document, ha=
ve
long been recognized.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Perhaps=
the most
important of these rights, often referred to as penumbral rights, is the de=
finition-eluding
right of privacy.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>From one pe=
rspective,
it is the coexistence of the pursuit of technological progress as a cultural
value (which has led to remarkable capabilities in information and
communication technologies and the attendant economic benefits and pitfalls=
) and
the desire of the citizens to live autonomous lives free from unwarranted
governmental intrusion (the realm of the penumbral right of privacy) that h=
as
led to much tension in outlining the contours of citizens’ privacy ri=
ghts
in the Internet Society.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>In t=
his brief essay
I attempt to synthesize the U.S. Supreme Court’s jurisprudence in the
privacy arena and how such doctrine should evolve in the Information Age, g=
iven
the reality of our surveillance society.<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn2'
href=3D"#_ftn2" name=3D"_ftnref2" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteRefer=
ence><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[2]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><b style=3D'mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><font size=3D3
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-weight:bold;
mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>The Right of Privacy:<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>From <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-sty=
le:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Griswold</span></i> =
to <i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>Lawrence</span></i> <o:p></o:p></span></font></b></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>The right of privacy,
as a constitutional right, was expounded in <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style=
:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Griswold v. Connecti=
cut</span></i>.<a
style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn3' href=3D"#_ftn3" name=3D"_ftnref3" title=3D""=
><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[3]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a><span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:no=
rmal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Griswold</span></i>
involved a challenge to a Connecticut statute barring physicians from giving
instruction or means of contraception to married persons.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>The real question, as the Court ar=
ticulated
it, was whether states could abridge individual citizens’ rights deem=
ed
fundamental, although not specified in the federal constitution, but unders=
tood
to be derived from the explicit guarantees in the constitution.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>The Court found the statute uncons=
titutional.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Justice Douglas, writing for the m=
ajority,
noted that “specific guarantees in the Bill or Rights have penumbras,
formed by emanations from those guarantees that help give them life and
substance ... [and those] various guarantees create zones of privacy.”=
;<a
style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn4' href=3D"#_ftn4" name=3D"_ftnref4" title=3D""=
><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[4]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a><span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>In a concurring opinion, Justice G=
oldberg,
quoting from <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-st=
yle:
italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Powell v. Alabama</span></i><a
style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn5' href=3D"#_ftn5" name=3D"_ftnref5" title=3D""=
><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[5]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a>,
reiterated that “[t]he inquiry is whether a right involved is of such=
a
character that it cannot be denied without violating those fundamental prin=
ciples
of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all our civil and political
institutions ...” (internal quotations omitted).<a style=3D'mso-footn=
ote-id:
ftn6' href=3D"#_ftn6" name=3D"_ftnref6" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnot=
eReference><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[6]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a><span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>&=
nbsp; </span><o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>Since <i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>Griswold</span></i> the Court has continued to recognize the right =
of
privacy in what might be deemed “decisional” or “physical
space-specific” contexts (<i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><sp=
an
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>e.g.</span></i>, <i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>Roe v. Wade</span></i><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn7' href=3D"#_f=
tn7"
name=3D"_ftnref7" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[7]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a>,
<i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Whalen v. Roe</span></i><a style=3D'mso-footnot=
e-id:
ftn8' href=3D"#_ftn8" name=3D"_ftnref8" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnot=
eReference><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[8]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a>,
<i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Planned Parenthood v. Casey</span></i><a
style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn9' href=3D"#_ftn9" name=3D"_ftnref9" title=3D""=
><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[9]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></s=
up></span></a>,
<i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Chandler v. Miller</span></i><a style=3D'mso-fo=
otnote-id:
ftn10' href=3D"#_ftn10" name=3D"_ftnref10" title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[10]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a>,
and <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:itali=
c;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Lawrence v. Texas</span></i><a style=3D'mso-foo=
tnote-id:
ftn11' href=3D"#_ftn11" name=3D"_ftnref11" title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[11]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a>,
which overruled the only case in the <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal=
'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Griswold</span></i>
progeny to significantly deviate from the “right of privacy doctrine,=
”
<i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Bowers v. Hardwick</span></i><a style=3D'mso-fo=
otnote-id:
ftn12' href=3D"#_ftn12" name=3D"_ftnref12" title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[12]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a>).<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>What it has not done, however, is =
provide a
workable framework for protecting citizens from what has been referred to as
“intangible invasions” in the Internet Society – that is,
freedom extending beyond spatial bounds.<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn13'
href=3D"#_ftn13" name=3D"_ftnref13" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteRef=
erence><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[13]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><b style=3D'mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><font size=3D3
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-weight:bold;
mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>So, Does Freedom Extend Beyond Spatial Bounds:=
<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>What to Make of Intangible Invasio=
ns Where Private
Affairs Are Exploited by Others?<o:p></o:p></span></font></b></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><b style=3D'mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><font size=3D3
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-weight:bold;
mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></b></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>It is worth noting, as
Justice Black did in his dissent in <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'=
><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Griswold</span></i>,=
that
the notion of a “right to privacy” was first developed in a law
review article co-authored by Louis D. Brandeis as a means of providing a b=
asis
of “tort relief to persons whose private affairs were exploited by
others.”<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn14' href=3D"#_ftn14" name=3D"_=
ftnref14"
title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-speci=
al-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[14]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></sup></span></a><span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>The powerful idea expressed in this
inconspicuous footnote embodies the progressive value that must be embraced=
if
we are to curtail the intrusions made possible by the merger of data
aggregators, analysts and government.<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn15'
href=3D"#_ftn15" name=3D"_ftnref15" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteRef=
erence><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[15]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a><b
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style=3D'font-weight:bold;mso-b=
idi-font-weight:
normal'><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>Recall Justice
Stewart’s memorable assertion in <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:norm=
al'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Katz v. United State=
s</span></i>,
“For the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places. What a person =
<i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>knowingly exposes to the public</span></i>, even in his own home or
office, is not a subject of Fourth Amendment protection ... But <i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>what he seeks to preserve as private</span></i>, even in an area
accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected” (emphasis
added).<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn16' href=3D"#_ftn16" name=3D"_ftnref1=
6" title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span style=3D'mso-special-character:foot=
note'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[16]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a>
In <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Katz</span></i>, federal agents attached an
eavesdropping device to the outside of a public phone booth used by Katz.<s=
pan
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>Based on recordings of his end of =
the
conversations, Katz was convicted under an eight-count indictment for the
illegal transmission of wagering information from Los Angeles to Boston and
Miami.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>The Court ruled that K=
atz was
entitled to Fourth Amendment protection for his conversations and that a
physical intrusion into the area he occupied was unnecessary to bring the
Amendment into play. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>A thorough reading of the
<i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Griswold</span></i> line of cases, and <i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>Katz</span></i>, reveals that it is the intent of the person subjec=
t to
a privacy intrusion that matters most – not the interests of the
government or private data brokers.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> =
</span>The
question then becomes whether Americans are “knowingly” exposing
profiling data to the <u>public</u> (including government) when engaging in
arms length transactions with private sector entities, or “seeking to
preserve” such information as private and only disclosed to the party=
in privity.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>When viewed through the lens of pr=
ivacy,
“knowingly” has to be construed to mean actual, not merely
constructive, notice.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>And in =
the
Internet society, actual notice must go beyond inconspicuous and largely un=
read
privacy policies written in legal jargon.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>&=
nbsp;
</span>Moreover, “seeking to preserve” should be the <span
class=3DSpellE>rebuttable</span> presumption afforded citizens, undermined =
only
by acquiescence to a clear and conspicuous policy to the contrary.<o:p></o:=
p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><span style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> =
; </span>In the words of Professor
Tribe, “[s]<span class=3DSpellE>cience</span> and technology open opt=
ions ...
[t]hey do not alter what is right or what is wrong ...<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>The Constitution’s norms, at=
their
deepest level, must be invariant under merely technological
transformations.”<a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn17' href=3D"#_ftn17"
name=3D"_ftnref17" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><span
style=3D'mso-special-character:footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span
class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><=
span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-fareast-font-fa=
mily:
"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;
mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[17]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></span></=
sup></span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'>[In a follow up to this essay I propose statutory language, with
interpretational guidance, designed to effect the changes deemed necessary =
to
restore privacy and slow down Big Brother and his private sector accomplice=
s.]<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D2 face=3DArial><span style=3D'font-size:1=
0.0pt;
font-family:Arial'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[1]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span>
Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, <span class=3DGramE><i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>The</span></i></span><i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'> Right to Privacy</s=
pan></i>,
4 <span class=3DSpellE>Harv</span>. L. Rev. 193 (1890), (<i style=3D'mso-bi=
di-font-style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>quotin=
g</span></i>
Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 2312), <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:norm=
al'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>available at</span><=
/i> <a
href=3D"http://www.lawrence.edu/fast/BOARDMAW/Privacy_brand_warr2.html">htt=
p://www.lawrence.edu/fast/BOARDMAW/Privacy_brand_warr2.html</a>.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>While an appreciation of the preva=
iling
jurisprudential stance that a right sounding in tort carries significantly =
less
weight than a right afforded constitutional protection is worth mentioning,
such a constructed distinction is of little moment to the progressive,
legal-realist oriented commentator who values the substance of liberty over=
the
formalism of procedure.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>That =
would be
me. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>2</span></font></=
sup></span>
For evidence of our surveillance society, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:n=
ormal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>see generally</span>=
</i>
Robert <span class=3DSpellE>O’Harrow</span>, Jr., <span style=3D'font=
-variant:
small-caps'>No Place to Hide</span>, Free Press (2005). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>3</span></font></=
sup></span>
<span class=3DGramE>381 U.S. 479 (1965).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>4</span></font></=
sup></span>
<span class=3DGramE>381 U.S. 479, 484 (1965).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>5</span></font></=
sup></span>
<span class=3DGramE>287 U.S. 45, 67 (1932).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>6</span></font></=
sup></span>
<span class=3DGramE>381 U.S. 479, 493 (1965).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>7</span></font></=
sup></span>
410 U.S. 113 (1973) (protecting woman’s right to terminate pregnancy)=
.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>8</span></font></=
sup></span>
429 U.S. 589 (1977) (upholding statute requiring identification of persons
obtaining certain drugs by prescription, where “<i style=3D'mso-bidi-=
font-style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>public
disclosure of the identity of patients is expressly prohibited</span></i>
...”) (emphasis added).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>9</span></font></=
sup></span>
505 U.S. 833 (1992) ()<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>10</span></font><=
/sup></span>
520 U.S. 305 (1997) (holding unconstitutional a Georgia statute requiring
candidates for certain public offices to take drug test).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>11</span></font><=
/sup></span>
539 U.S. 558 (2003) (overruled <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Bowers v. Hardwick</=
span></i>,
holding that right to liberty gives homosexuals the full right to engage in
their conduct without intervention from the government.)<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>12</span></font><=
/sup></span>
<span class=3DGramE>478 U.S. 186 (holding Constitution provided no fundamen=
tal
right to engage in homosexual sodomy).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>13</span></font><=
/sup></span>
Laurence H. Tribe, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>The Constitution in
Cyberspace<span class=3DGramE>:<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </sp=
an>Law and
Liberty Beyond</span> the Electronic Frontier</span></i>, <i style=3D'mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>availa=
ble at</span></i>
<a href=3D"http://www.epic.org/free_speech/tribe.html">http://www.epic.org/=
free_speech/tribe.html</a>.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>14</span></font><=
/sup></span>
381 U.S. 479, 510 (1965); Warren & Brandeis, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-=
style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>supra<=
/span></i>
note 1.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>15</span></font><=
/sup></span>
While the Privacy Act of 1974 precludes the government from maintaining dat=
a on
citizens not targeted for investigations, there are no comparable restricti=
ons
prohibiting government from contracting with private sector entities not su=
bject
to the restriction.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>16</span></font><=
/sup></span>
<span class=3DGramE>389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'>17</span></font><=
/sup></span>
Tribe, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:it=
alic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>supra</span></i> note 8.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D2 face=3DArial><span style=3D'font-size:1=
0.0pt;
font-family:Arial'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D2 face=3DArial><span style=3D'font-size:1=
0.0pt;
font-family:Arial'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>Bryan A. Brooks<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>Columbia Law School<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>Class of 2006<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>"True compassion is more than flinging a coin=
to
a beggar. It comes to see that an edifice which produces beggars needs
restructuring."<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>- MLK, Jr.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>“Where purpose is not known, abuse is
inevitable.”<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span><o:p></o:p=
></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'>- Myles Munroe<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt;mso-no-proof:yes'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D=
'font-size:
12.0pt'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote-list'><![if !supportFootnotes]><br clear=
=3Dall>
<hr align=3Dleft size=3D1 width=3D"33%">
<![endif]>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn1>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn1' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef1"
name=3D"_ftn1" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[1]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
Samuel D. Warren & Louis D. Brandeis, <span class=3DGramE><i
style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'>The</span></i></span><i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'> Right to Privacy</s=
pan></i>,
4 <span class=3DSpellE>Harv</span>. L. Rev. 193 (1890), (<i style=3D'mso-bi=
di-font-style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>quotin=
g</span></i>
Millar v. Taylor, 4 Burr. 2303, 2312), <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:norm=
al'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>available at</span><=
/i> <a
href=3D"http://www.lawrence.edu/fast/BOARDMAW/Privacy_brand_warr2.html">htt=
p://www.lawrence.edu/fast/BOARDMAW/Privacy_brand_warr2.html</a>.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>While an appreciation of the preva=
iling
jurisprudential stance that a right sounding in tort carries significantly =
less
weight than a right afforded constitutional protection is worth mentioning,
such a constructed distinction is of little moment to the progressive,
legal-realist oriented commentator who values the substance of liberty over=
the
formalism of procedure.<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span>That =
would be
me. <o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn2>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn2' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef2"
name=3D"_ftn2" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[2]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
For evidence of our surveillance society, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:n=
ormal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>see generally</span>=
</i>
Robert <span class=3DSpellE>O’Harrow</span>, Jr., <span style=3D'font=
-variant:
small-caps'>No Place to Hide</span>, Free Press (2005). </p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn3>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn3' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef3"
name=3D"_ftn3" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[3]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
<span class=3DGramE>381 U.S. 479 (1965).</span></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn4>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn4' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef4"
name=3D"_ftn4" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[4]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
<span class=3DGramE>381 U.S. 479, 484 (1965).</span></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn5>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn5' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef5"
name=3D"_ftn5" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[5]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
<span class=3DGramE>287 U.S. 45, 67 (1932).</span></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn6>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn6' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef6"
name=3D"_ftn6" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[6]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
<span class=3DGramE>381 U.S. 479, 493 (1965).</span></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn7>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn7' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef7"
name=3D"_ftn7" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[7]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
410 U.S. 113 (1973) (protecting woman’s right to terminate pregnancy)=
.</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn8>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn8' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef8"
name=3D"_ftn8" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[8]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
429 U.S. 589 (1977) (upholding statute requiring identification of persons
obtaining certain drugs by prescription, where “<i style=3D'mso-bidi-=
font-style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>public
disclosure of the identity of patients is expressly prohibited</span></i>
...”) (emphasis added).</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn9>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn9' href=3D"#_ftnr=
ef9"
name=3D"_ftn9" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font siz=
e=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[9]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></sp=
an></span></font></sup></span></a>
505 U.S. 833 (1992) ()</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn10>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn10' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref10"
name=3D"_ftn10" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[10]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
520 U.S. 305 (1997) (holding unconstitutional a Georgia statute requiring
candidates for certain public offices to take drug test).</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn11>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn11' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref11"
name=3D"_ftn11" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[11]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
539 U.S. 558 (2003) (overruled <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Bowers v. Hardwick</=
span></i>,
holding that right to liberty gives homosexuals the full right to engage in
their conduct without intervention from the government.)</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn12>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn12' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref12"
name=3D"_ftn12" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[12]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
<span class=3DGramE>478 U.S. 186 (holding Constitution provided no fundamen=
tal
right to engage in homosexual sodomy).</span></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn13>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn13' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref13"
name=3D"_ftn13" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[13]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
Laurence H. Tribe, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span
style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>The Constitution in
Cyberspace<span class=3DGramE>:<span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </sp=
an>Law and
Liberty Beyond</span> the Electronic Frontier</span></i>, <i style=3D'mso-b=
idi-font-style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>availa=
ble at</span></i>
<a href=3D"http://www.epic.org/free_speech/tribe.html">http://www.epic.org/=
free_speech/tribe.html</a>.</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn14>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn14' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref14"
name=3D"_ftn14" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[14]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
381 U.S. 479, 510 (1965); Warren & Brandeis, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-=
style:
normal'><span style=3D'font-style:italic;mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>supra<=
/span></i>
note 1.</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn15>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn15' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref15"
name=3D"_ftn15" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[15]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
While the Privacy Act of 1974 precludes the government from maintaining dat=
a on
citizens not targeted for investigations, there are no comparable restricti=
ons
prohibiting government from contracting with private sector entities not su=
bject
to the restriction.</p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn16>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn16' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref16"
name=3D"_ftn16" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[16]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
<span class=3DGramE>389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967).</span><o:p></o:p></p>
</div>
<div style=3D'mso-element:footnote' id=3Dftn17>
<p class=3DMsoFootnoteText><a style=3D'mso-footnote-id:ftn17' href=3D"#_ftn=
ref17"
name=3D"_ftn17" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup><font si=
ze=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span style=3D'ms=
o-special-character:
footnote'><![if !supportFootnotes]><span class=3DMsoFootnoteReference><sup>=
<font
size=3D2 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-fami=
ly:"Times New Roman";
mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-farea=
st-language:
EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[17]</span></font></sup></span><![endif]></s=
pan></span></font></sup></span></a>
Tribe, <i style=3D'mso-bidi-font-style:normal'><span style=3D'font-style:it=
alic;
mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>supra</span></i> note 8.<span
style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> </span></p>
</div>
</div>
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